THE LAWS OF PERSPECTIVE : Simple Methods of Determining

The camera affords the simplest example of how the laws of perspective operate. When a group of people stand close to the camera lens, the heads seem large, the background small and far off, On the other hand, it is a fact that the same group taken with the camera posted some distance away is shown with the background closer up, and there is less of a slant to the background objects—buildings in particular. This is due to the fact that the "point of sight," or "vanishing point" (a more common term), is closer to you, as you stand nearer the object in perspective.

For your "station point" determines the degree of slant of the parallel lines, so that in sketching a building like Faneuil Hall, say (see accompanying sketch), it is best to draw it from a distance. Otherwise your view would seem exaggerated.

This drawing illustrates the fact that it is possible to have more than one vanishing point in a picture, as shown by the block of wood lying on the track. At the left is seen the method of finding the position of successive objects in perspective.

Now the eye operates on the same principle as the camera, and many a good drawing is ruined by being, even a slight degree, out of perspective. Even if you have not had an art training, you will instinctively feel an error in perspective in a cartoon, illustration, or in any other drawing.

In your first drawings you will probably have to measure and prove up those of your sketches involving perspective. With practice, however, it will soon become "second nature" to draw perspective correctly and without effort.

In seeking to understand perspective it will be well to remember these important points : the horizon line, the vanishing point, the point of station, and the line of vision.

The horizon line is an imaginary line on a horizontal level with the eye.

The lines of objects above the horizon line slant downward to the horizon line; objects below slant upward to the line.

With these facts in mind one can find the horizon line in any picture.

The line of vision is, as its name indicates, the direction taken by the sight from the point of vision to the horizon line.

The vanishing point is the spot at which all parallel lines in perspective meet somewhere on the horizon line, depending on the station point. Remember that there can be more than one vanishing point. There are, for example, independent vanishing points for objects leading out of the picture, as shown in the Rodeheaver plate.

The station point is that particular place where you are standing, or sitting, as you choose, in making your sketch.

Blocking-in method (lines visualized) applied to landscapes for the purpose of obtaining perspective and-

The Completed Scene.

If you are standing, the horizon line will be higher, if seated it will be lower in ratio to the same scene. It is an imaginary line horizontally crossing your eyes.

For example if your station point were on a mountain top the valley would be below your horizon line. The parallel perspective lines therefrom would trend upwards.

If, on the other hand, your station point were in the valley at the base of this mountain, the parallel lines as you look to sketch this mountain scene would extend downward.

Showing perspective of standing figures obtained by two different methods. Note the accidental vanishing point of the trombone.

A simple way of finding the perspective of the angles of a building.

Station at Grand Rapids, North Dakota. (See text for explanation of perspective lines.)

A rule in perspective is that perpendicular lines must remain so — poles, edges of buildings, boxes, etc.

Assuming that your station point is close to the perpendicular corner line of a house, your vanishing point will be very close if you included the entire roof and the base line of the building.

You would observe how greatly your lines would be slanted. If you stood a block away and sketched the same house, you would get the result seen in the sketch of the station at Grand Rapids — the vanishing point would be farther away.

To find the slant of a roof, or any parallel line, a simple method is to hold a pencil across your vision, parallel with the slant of the object. This will give you the slant for the drawing of that line.

Your arm, fully extended (though not quite necessary), will always give you the same measuring distance for other parallel lines.

In sketching two sides of a house from your station point you will have two vanishing points, one for each side of the house.

Your vision will take in the view to the right and the left at a right angle — 45 degrees.

The point outside your eyes on the horizon line will be equally distant from the vanishing point at the right and left of this point.

This rule locates the second vanishing point easily and accurately. After having found the one vanishing point you place your triangle on the line of your horizon line on the pad, one point touching the vanishing point, already located, the center point touching the station point. The other point of the triangle will be touching the spot of the second vanishing point.

To find the pitch of a barn roof, place perpendicular lines of the barn and find the fore-pitch of the roof.

Draw a line from this base-point across to the vanishing point on the horizon line. This will locate the base of the opposite roof, since it will meet on this perspective line. The top point of the roof is located by holding the pencil across the vision in position with the diagonal roof line.

The same view—Faneuil Hall—as completed.

Blocking in a view. The figures represent the various steps that should be taken in creating a similar composition.

The method to be followed is the same as that involved in locating objects equally apart in perspective, such as a row of houses, lamp posts, or telegraph poles.

This is an easy matter if you use the following method:

Draw your nearest pole. Then find your vanishing point on the horizontal line, by the "pencil before the vision" method.

Next locate your second pole.

Then draw a line from the middle of the first pole to the vanishing point by measuring with your pencil. Draw a line from the base of the pole, diagonally across Pole 2, crossing it where the middle line crosses Pole 2, meeting the diagonal lines on the top perspective line. This locates the top of Pole 3.

To locate Pole 4, start another line similarly from the base of Pole 2 across the center of Pole 3, thereby touching the top of Pole 4. To locate the other poles continue this same plan.

This is the recognized method of finding perspective, and for drawing objects such

as poles and regular rows of objects, it is excellent. At the same time, a plan worked out by myself is simpler, and often better adapted in every way to existing conditions.

You will find in the accompanying plates several examples of my method, which is to compare, on the same horizontal line, each point in a scene with a corresponding point, and locating it in its perpendicular position in relation thereto.

I start out with the nearest large object — let us say the nearest man, for it is the method I employ in sketching people. I draw the head in block detail — locating the eyes, nose, mouth, ear and hair line.

The object and man next to this "key head" I put in place by comparing the location of the top of this head and the point of the chin, as these points touch on the same horizontal line with the key head.

This second head I will perpendicularly locate as being perhaps a key head's length away from the key head.

The next head will be located from the head just sketched — and so on.

It is not necessary to locate every head by the key head, for if head No.2 is correct, which it must be, it makes a good and convenient method for measuring the next head by.

A simple method will locate these horizontal points in relation to one another.

With my drawing pencil extended horizontally across my vision, I see, exactly what points are on this horizontal line and place them thus on the sketch pad. One eye is usually kept closed while making observations.

In sketching a group at a table or other gathering, you will not find it so difficult if you will follow the plan shown in the accompanying illustration, together with the key diagram plate.

As in any other scene, visualize your group in proportion, photographically, on your pad to get the size you wish to draw it. Stand off about six feet, at least.

All your preliminary sketching do with a hard pencil. Start with the largest head, which will be the one nearest you. Roughly sketch in this head and a part of the shoulders.

Block in where the eyes and other features will be.

Then sketch the next head to you (No. 2). Measure its size by the key head, No. 1. Where the chin and the top of this head come on a horizontal line with the key head determines the proportion.

Rough in the rest the same way, measuring the next heads by No. 5. Measure perpendicularly in relation to the key head, No. 1. Measure the other heads horizontally and perpendicularly in the same manner.

After having roughly blocked in these heads, start back and work up the details in No. 1, then No. 2, and Nos. 5 and 6, or 3 and 4, and so on — or finish the bottom row, then the far row.

You will find, if you have followed your measurements correctly, that your drawing is in perspective.

If you notice a mistake, do not overlook it; correct it immediately or it may later be a stumbling block, and a bad one.

This manner of getting correct perspective, I compare to building a house—block by block, with a correct mind's eye vision of the completed house always before me as I lay on each stone, gradually finishing to the complete realization point the visioned picture.

Now you are ready to make a sketch of your own.

Visualize the scene before, you — or one drawn from imagination on your pad.

Use the object that looms up in the foreground as a guide to measuring the rest of the scene. Then roughly sketch in your scene on the pad as you photographically see it in your mind.

Also observe each point in relation to the opposite horizontal point, and likewise to perpendicular points, and you will not have a one-sided, out-of-perspective picture. Ability to do this correctly comes with practice, which will train the eye to do this photographically correct.

One or more houses or trees may be out of this line of perspective, and consequently may throw you off. By my comparison method you are meeting each line and point in line with its opposite, and consequently all will be correct in perspective in the end.

Observe the Billy Sunday plates.

At Rodeheaver's side is his famous trombone.

I drew this sketch in the tabernacle, using my method of locating objects in perspective. In the first drawing I show this merely with the major horizontal lines needed for this part of the sketch. The principle, however, is the same as used in the two cuts showing the method for obtaining perspective in scenes.

Second cut, the duplicate, shows that my method brings the same results as the standard method of perspective, and more easily.

Note Rodeheaver's trumpet. This is in perspective. Its vanishing point is a case of the "accidental vanishing point." It is not on the horizon line, as you will perceive.

Simple perspective introduced into a cartoon made during the war on the subject of federal rail control. The vertical lines represent railway lines leading to Washington.

The accompanying sketch of Faneuil Hall, in Boston, shows how a complex arrangement of lines are easily reduced to perspective by this method.

Faneuil Hall is the main feature of this sketch and therefore must be brought out to catch the eye first. It is not necessary to paint the entire costume — the surroundings being in a sketch of this kind what clothing is to a portrait.

Therefore start visualizing the main building on the blank paper, determining how large you wish to draw it.

You must figure on a bit of foreground, and determine what is needed to set it off, lest it appear to be a mere architectural sketch of a colonial building.

It must have "atmosphere," and this is shown in the surroundings.

The highest point being the flag pole I put in first, next the tower, then the horizontal lines.

A figure or so is added to the foreground to show proportionate distance relativity, as Einstein would have it — and to add a touch of life to the picture. Other perpendicular lines are used to square the composition, and then each part is blocked in.

After this is done, you can readily perceive how easy it will be to add the details.

Always, in glancing at a scene which you are about to sketch, be certain to note how the picture will look in a mass, how and where the main lines of perspective will vanish on the paper. The perspective in my sketch vanished just below No. 18, outside the line.

A building as distant as Faneuil Hall in this sketch would not show all its detail — the individual bricks, each window pane, etc. However, as the windows are not of the modern, two-large-pane variety, but of the colonial design, this fact should be suggested by showing it in one or two windows, as I have done.

The long brown pillars (ten on each side) I bring out, though merely suggesting at the sides.

There is a touch of black in the foreground and on the autos and express wagon, to aid color distance (aerial perspective), since objects become grayer in proportion as they recede into the background. The people in the foreground are there, as we pointed out above, to add life, and to aid in the perspective. They are not as important as Faneuil Hall, and therefore are not worked up being scarcely more than suggested.

The buildings back of the Hall (to the left), are dark. This accentuates the whiteness of the hall, bringing it out and, by means of this contrast, forward.

Note how the angle of perspective runs up from the lower right side to Figure 18.

It was a bright day, and therefore no cloud lines appear in the sky. Birds are shown flying about — being hardly more than suggested, since their purpose is merely to add a feeling of sky and airy vastness to the picture.